Bodyweight before external loading

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

I apply the following guideline to any athlete, not just young athlete - why use external loading before developing the ability to manage the load of bodyweight?

…if your bodyweight for whatever reason is too much for your leg strength, you can always do a  one-legged leg press or hack squat.

Cosgrove, 2003, Your Body as a Barbell (seminar on DVD)

My theory has always been that the only reason an athlete should lift weights is when their bodyweight no longer provides any challenge to them.

A lot of people are now working with athletes or clients and the first exercise they will do will be a squat with the bar, before the guy can even squat his bodyweight under what I would consider to be control.

The concept that I want to get across is that I can take someone to their limit with just bodyweight…if you can take them to the limit with bodyweight you should not be using too much external load because their bodyweight is enough…

My basic rule is all my new clients start with a phase of bodyweight training ‘cos I need to see that they have full musculature control over everything…

Bodyweight before external loading

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

I apply the following guideline to any athlete, not just young athlete - why use external loading before developing the ability to manage the load of bodyweight?

…if your bodyweight for whatever reason is too much for your leg strength, you can always do a  one-legged leg press or hack squat.

Cosgrove, A., 2003, Martial Arts

..until we have developed a solid base using single leg exercises and bodyweight loads...

p. 27…An athlete has no business using load if he/she cannot stabilize, control and move efficiently with only their bodyweight.  Unless your bodyweight is way too much, or way too little, then there is very little room in my opinion for external loading.

Hamstring tightness and hip flexors

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Ch 22 – Injury Prevention: Flexibility

Here is how I believe it works.  Tight hip flexors/quads pull the top of the pelvis forward excessively (anterior rotation).  This then causes the nerves coming out of the lower spine to be pinched.  This in turn results in nerve irritation and muscle spasm in the muscles that these nerves innervate.  The symptoms are often pains down the leg, apparent strains in the hamstrings or calves and so on.  The symptoms are many.  The cause is simple - excessive anterior rotation of the pelvis due to tight muscles.  Relief is rapid when the cause is treated!

Cosgrove, A., 2003, Martial Arts

What is the limiting component?

…In my opinion, lack of range in the hamstrings is often a result of an anteriorally rotated pelvis – placing too much tension on the hamstrings.

 Determining Speed of Movement

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! I (book)

If you take time to check out my program design examples later in this book you will see I tend to periodize from slow to fast, and that a rep TUT of about 5-6 seconds (3:1:1) is about my average

King, I. and Louma, TC, 1999, Four Seconds to More Productive Workouts, T-mag.com

Of course, there's another way to negate this elastic energy. You can lengthen the lowering phase of the lift. For instance, if it takes you two seconds to lower the bar, you might only need to pause two seconds before you lift the bar. Likewise, if it takes you three or more seconds to lower the bar, you only need to pause one second before raising the weight. Got it? I call it the four-second rule. Any combination of numbers that equals four seconds or more in the lowering phase and the pause will negate or partially negate the stretch shortening cycle phenomenon.

Cosgrove, A., 2003, Martial Arts

Q. Is there a certain way to decide which tempo to use? Are there certain exercises or specific goals in which you would use a certain tempo?

A. For muscle hypertrophy: The rep should last about 5-6 seconds, with the lowering phase and the pause phase adding up to greater than 4 seconds…

6/1/6/1 method

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Contrast training : is also an explosive power training method, but can be used to great effect in bodybuilding.  It involves alternating from a high load/slow movement to a lower load/faster movement.  You can see the speed training (explosive power) benefits, but the following example is a highly effective maximum strength/hypertrophy method.

 

1x6@100kgs / 1x1@120kgs / 1x6@105kgs / 1x1 @125kgs /

1x10-20 @80kgs

 

This is a highly effective method that will only work if you avoid excessive fatigue in the first 6’s and 1’s.  The aim of the 1’s is to expose the body to a higher load, and when you come back to the 6 the 6 should feel lighter than it otherwise would have.  Note the goal is to lift heavier in the second 6 and 1 than in the first 6 and 1.

Cosgrove, A., 2004 MF Bag of Tricks, Men’s Fitness

6-1 Principle

 

How to do it:

 

Take your seven-rep max and do six repetitions. Then rest for 3-5 minutes. Then increase the weight until it's about 90% of your one-rep max. Do one repetition and rest 3-5 minutes. Repeat the procedure, but this time do six reps with a weight that's about 2% to 3% heavier than your six-rep max. For your one-rep set, choose a weight that's about 2% to 3% heavier than your max. (Congratulations, you set a new personal record.)

 

Why it works: In the one-repetition set, your muscles are expecting to do six repetitions, so it doesn't seem as hard. In the six-repetition set, your muscles are expecting a heavier load, which makes the weight seem lighter. The end result is a plateau-busting effort.

 

Duration of Programs

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

I recommend at least one full recovery week after each 12 week training block…

The longest period of uninterrupted training that I would recommend is 12 weeks or micro-cycles (for our purposes these terms are synonymous.  This would be followed by a full rest week. 

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

Every twelve weeks, a full week off from training needs to be scheduled.

Never use the same muscle group/line of movement sequence endlessly

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

But what I will teach you now is never use the same muscle group sequence endlessly.  Doing so will do two things : reinforce inevitable muscle imbalances that result from any given sequence; and secondly, contribute to the neglected muscle groups stagnating.

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

If you continue to follow the exact same movement pattern split for long periods of time, you will very likely develop muscle imbalances and risk injury. 

 CAPABLE VS OPTIMAL

#

King 1999

Get Buffed!

Cosgrove 2005

Program Design Bible

1

Capable versus optimal : most people in strength training perform a number of sets that they have the energy to do.  This is endurance training, not strength training.  Strength training effectiveness is not judged by what you did (ie. how many sets you did), but rather how much change occurred as a result (ie. size or strength).  This training effect is a combination of the workout plus the rest / recovery until the next workout. 

Optimal v Capable – most trainees judge how effective a workout has been by how “beat up” they feel.  Or by how much work (interpreted usually as how many sets) they have done.  The effectiveness of training is not determined by the amount of fatigue it products but by the degree to which it improves the qualities and/or abilities you are trying to develop.  You do not improve by training. You improve by recovering from training.

2

You will not know what is optimal during the session unless you have indicators based on prior experience.  Don’t work to metabolic signals such as total fatigue.  And only use past indicators for number of sets if they have been effective. 

The best advice I can offer as far as this goes is, even if you can do more – unless you have valid proof that in your case, more will be significantly better – always do less until you have that proof.

Injury prevention vs. performance enhancement – prioritize injury prevention

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)

In brief you and I have choices.  We can enhance performance, or we can prevent injury, or we can do both.  If we are going to do both, I like to do injury prevention first

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

 Ideally we approach goals and correct problems at the same time. However it should be noted that correction of imbalance takes precedence over aesthetic, gender-driven or performance exercise. Otherwise we are risking and to be honest promoting injury. 

More effective exercises

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

For the most part I support the use of big muscle group exercises.   Some call them basic movements.  They are the foundation of most strength sports.  I believe they are not only more effective for size and strength, they are more time efficient i.e. they train more muscle mass in a shorter period of time.

If I had to pick a few basic movements that I believe you should base your training around they would include the exercises listed in Figure 50.

Figure 50  -  The basic exercises for each major muscle group. 

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

These ‘big bang’ exercises are multi-joint, multiple muscle group and sometimes multi-planar exercises and recruit considerably more muscle mass than single joint or machine variations.  So whether your goal is strength, hypertrophy of fat loss, some variations of these exercises should be in pretty much all training program at some point.

It goes without saying, (but it doesn’t) that imbalances and corrective stages aside, that there are certain exercises that are just more effective overall than the others.  The list of exercises includes squats, deadlifts, split squats, lunges (in all planes), dips, chins, rows, presses and some core work.

Bodyweight before external loading

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

I apply the following guideline to any athlete, not just young athlete - why use external loading before developing the ability to manage the load of bodyweight?

…if your bodyweight for whatever reason is too much for your leg strength, you can always do a  one-legged leg press or hack squat.

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

1.  Bodyweight before external loading

A client has no business using load if he/she cannot stabilize, control and move efficiently with only their bodyweight.  Unless your bodyweight is way too much, or way too little, then there is very little room in my opinion for external loading.

Example of program planning using lines of movement

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Figure 9 - An example of a 3/wk ’semi-total body’ split routine.  This split requires less of your time and allows more time for muscle recovery than a standard total body workout.

NB the allocation of muscle groups to training days is an example only. 

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

So in this example we have decided that the movement allocation be as follows:

Day One                                  Day Two                                  Day Three

______________________________________________________________

Horizontal Pull                     Vertical Push                       Quad Dominant             Hip Dominant                        Vertical Pull                            Horizontal Push

Prioritization – Done first is done best

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

There is really one simple rule here.  The exercises you do first in the workout and first in the training week are the exercises that get the best effort, and therefore the best result.  

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

As a general rule, everyone fatigues as the workout continues, and what is done first in the workout generally gets the best training effect.

Shortening of the rest period – lactate effect

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

     th shortening of the rest period : the focus in this method is to reduce the rest periods between sets as a form of progression.  This is from the metabolic perspective, focusing on the discomfort of working under lactic acid.   This method ignores the neural component, but is effective for certain hypertrophy components (e.g. increase size of slow twitch or Type 1 muscle fibers, increased capillarization, short-term elevation of hormones including Growth Hormone);

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

 I can purposefully use shorter rest periods to create a lactate tolerance effect.

Shortening of the rest period – metabolic and hormonal effect

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Short rest periods between sets : short rest periods, as I have explained above, creates greater fatigue of the metabolic system, which is supportive of hypertrophy, and  also has been shown to cause higher testosterone and growth hormone release.  Higher GH (growth hormone) release has been related to lowering body fat.

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

 For the purpose of hypertrophy training and fat loss, short rest periods of 30-60 seconds coupled with higher volume training have been found to cause elevated levels of GH and testosterone.

Comparison of ‘ANATOMY OF MULTIPLE SET WORKOUTS’ wordings by paragraph

#

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

Cosgrove 2005 Program Design Bible

1

The first work set

The primary effect of the first work set is shock.  The body, subject to the laws of homeostasis and innate protective mechanisms, rarely functions optimally during the first work set. ot at your most efficient. 

I have also been heavily influenced by Ian King when selecting the number of sets.  King has pointed out that the first set of a workout tends to be a ‘shock’ to the body.  The body rarely functions well during the first work set of an exercise.

3

The second work set - This set is potentially the ‘best’ set.  The second work set benefits from the first work set - in what can be described as ‘neural arousal’, or greater neuro-muscular innervation...Psychologically, you have  benefited from the exposure to the load of the first set - now you are ready, anticipating the load.  There will be no surprises. ...

 The second set however tends to benefit from the first set in terms of neural innvervation – the body is ‘awake’ now.  At the end of the second set, psychologically you now ‘own’ the weight.  At this point King feels a third set at the same load is excessive. I think it may be an exercise in futility.

4

The third and subsequent work sets - How you respond to the third and subsequent work sets may be influenced by many factors including: 

· your entry level recovery (as reflected by your resting stores of metabolic and neural substrates);

· your level of specific conditioning (ability to tolerate this volume);

· nutritional/ergogenic effects on your rate of substrate/neural chemical replacement; and

· how close to maximum effort and fatigue you went on the prior two work sets.

A third set at the same load as sets one and two is becoming an exercise in endurance.  It is influenced by recovery status, nutritional status, substrate availability and to be honest residual fatigue from sets one and two. 

5

These factors aside, I believe that in most cases, the application of a third or more work set of the same load are affected by residual fatigue.  And therefore they are perhaps not the most efficient method of overload.

6

In a nut-shell, if you are lifting the same load for say three sets of ten, it is unlikely it was your maximum in set one.  In fact, if you are able to complete three sets of ten at the same load, even if you reach exhaustion on the tenth rep of the third set, it is unlikely that even the second set was at or near your maximum.  Probably the only time you are at your maximum is on the third set - and even then that maximum may be more of a metabolic maximum than a neural maximum.

In a nutshell if you are still able to lift the same load for three sets, it is likely that you have selected loads based on the facts you are doing three sets – i.e.  you didn’t use your maximum load.

7

...In my opinion, it is difficult to do more than two sets at the same reps and load if the effort is maximal.  In most cases of standard sets, I feel that each set is performed sub-maximally from either a load or fatigue perspective.  Figure 37 illustrates my point using estimations.

In general, I rarely use more than two sets of the same exercise at the same load.

Inverse relationship between sets and number of exercises

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)

6.  Determine how many exercises per muscle group you wish to do: the number of sets per exercise per muscle group is now determined.  Continuing on with the above example, you find you could do about five to six (5-6) sets per each of the four muscle groups to be trained.   Note that there should be an inverse relationship between the number of exercises and the number of sets.  The more exercises you chose to do, the less number of sets per exercise you should do, and vice versa.   This is further discussed in Chapter 9.

There should be an inverse relationship between the number of exercises and the number of sets.  The more exercises you want to do, the less the number of sets per exercise you can afford to do. 

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

...the more exercises that are needed means we have to reduce total sets because of time issues.

Other factors influencing number of sets

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)

What other factors influence the optimal number of sets?  The following factors give you a greater insight into the issue of optimal number of set

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

Other factors that influence set selection are:…

Other factors influencing number of sets

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)

6.  Determine how many exercises per muscle group you wish to do: the number of sets per exercise per muscle group is now determined.  Continuing on with the above example, you find you could do about five to six (5-6) sets per each of the four muscle groups to be trained.   Note that there should be an inverse relationship between the number of exercises and the number of sets.  The more exercises you chose to do, the less number of sets per exercise you should do, and vice versa.   This is further discussed in Chapter 9.

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

Obviously the more exercises that are needed means we have to reduce total sets because of time issues.

Other factors influencing number of sets

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)

2. Determine what number of total sets for the training session may be optimal : I believe the most important component of this equation is the ‘bigger picture’.  That is, decide how many total sets per workout you deem to be optimal, before considering how many sets per exercise.  

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

 While it is important to address this issue I think it’s a backwards approach. I prefer to select the entire loading parameters, including sets, and then see how many exercises I can do, not the other way around.

 Comparison of ‘NUMBER OF EXERCISES INFLUENCES SETS’  wordings by paragraph

#

King 1999

Get Buffed

Cosgrove 2005

Program Design Bible

What other factors influence the optimal number of sets?  The following factors give you a greater insight into the issue of optimal number of sets

Other factors that influence set selection are:…

1

6.  Determine how many exercises per muscle group you wish to do: … Note that there should be an inverse relationship between the number of exercises and the number of sets.  The more exercises you chose to do, the less number of sets per exercise you should do, and vice versa.   This is further discussed in Chapter 9.

Obviously the more exercises that are needed means we have to reduce total sets because of time issues.

2

2. Determine what number of total sets for the training session may be optimal : I believe the most important component of this equation is the ‘bigger picture’.  That is, decide how many total sets per workout you deem to be optimal, before considering how many sets per exercise.  Figures 20 and 21 provide my guidelines on determining optimal number of sets. 

While it is important to address this issue I think it’s a backwards approach. I prefer to select the entire loading parameters, including sets, and then see how many exercises I can do, not the other way around.

Criticism of the 3 digit speed timing method

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Another less common criticism (one I used to get more so in the early 1990s) is that it is too complex and the movements should be ‘just done’.  Yes, the system does need to be understood by the program writer (I suspect this to be the greatest challenge to these critics); and yes, it does need to be explained to the trainee.  No, it doesn’t have to be executed with perfection - it is just a guideline (so don’t get out your metronome!).  And finally, ignoring the varying training effects that arise from varying movement speed is like throwing out 25% of your potential strength adaptations.  As you please….

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

It may appear over-complicated…

…tempo is nothing more than a method of communicating rep speed.…A common argument is ‘if I focus on maintaining a 321 speed then I can’t focus on just working hard’.

…So the tempo system DOES need to be understood by the coaches and the trainee.

Does it need to be executed with a metronome for absolute accuracy?  No – it is just a useful guideline.

Criticism of the 3 digit speed timing method

[sentence structure/word selection comparison]

King, I., 1998, How to Write (book)

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

Another less common criticism is that it is too complex

It may appear over-complicated…

…tempo is nothing more than a method of communicating rep spee

and the movements should be ‘just done’. 

.…A common argument is ‘if I focus on maintaining a 321 speed then I can’t focus on just working hard’.

Yes the system does need to be understood by the program writer (I suspect the greatest challenge to these critics), and yes it does need  to be explained to the trainee. 

…So the tempo system DOES need to be understood by the coaches and the trainee.

No, it doesn’t have to be executed with perfection

Does it need to be executed with a metronome for absolute accuracy? 

- it is just a guideline

No – it is just a useful guideline.

(so don’t get out your metronome!).

 And finally, ignoring the varying training effects that arise from varying movement speed

p. 4^th paragraph on p. 56 …

My feeling is that rep speed is a potential source of training variety that a good coach can use.

is like throwing out 25% of your potential strength adaptations.  As you please….

To ignore it is to short change your clients. When you consider we have sets, reps, and tempo, load and rest periods, to discard the manipulations we can make to any one of these is the equivalent of ignoring a potential 20% of our loading parameter.

 Dissipating elastic energy

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! I (book)

Australian biomechanist Greg Wilson did some great research in the 1990s in quantifying the role of the SSC. He found that if you do a conventional bench press with an eccentric or lowering phase that was about a second, it took a full four second pause in between the eccentric and concentric to completely eliminate the stretch shortening cycle

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

Australian researcher Greg Wilson showed that it took a 4 second pause before we eliminated the stretch-shortening effect.  So anything less than a four second pause still involves the use of momentum.

 The concentric phase - the need for speed

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Where I believe most get it wrong is this.  For those concerned about power (rate of force development), I don’t recommend using anything less than a fast or attempted-to-be-fast concentric contraction for some 80-90% of total training time.    A lack of awareness of the ‘need for speed’ (attempted acceleration) in the concentric phase in the power athlete may result in an adaptation to a non-specific rate of force development.  This is the same non-effective and perhaps detrimental training effect that occurred when athletes first started using strength training and using the bodybuilding methods way back decades ago – a total lack of awareness of the need for a fast/attempted-to-be-fast concentric contraction.  Therefore the power athlete cannot afford to spend more than 10-20 % (as a generalization) of their total strength training time using numbers greater than 1 as the third number. 

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

As an important consideration however is the use of tempo with power athletes.  For anyone concerned with power or speed, anything less than an explosive (or an attempt to be explosive) is not recommended for the bulk of your training. While it is fine for a general fitness client or an aesthetic driven client to use slow concentric it is largely determinantal for the explosive power athlete as it is non-specific to the development of power.  So for the explosive athletes a rep tempo will either end in a ‘1’ or an ‘X’.

The concentric phase – the need for speed

[sentence structure/word selection comparison]

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

Where I believe most get it wrong is this. 

As an important consideration however is the use of tempo with power athletes. 

For those concerned about power (rate of force development),

For anyone concerned with power or speed,

I don’t recommend using anything less than a fast or attempted-to-be-fast concentric contraction for some 80-90% of total training time.  

anything less than an explosive (or an attempt to be explosive) is not recommended for the bulk of your training.

A lack of awareness of the ‘need for speed’ (attempted acceleration) in the concentric phase in the power athlete may result in an adaptation to a non-specific rate of force development. 

While it is fine for a general fitness client or an aesthetic driven client to use slow concentric

This is the same non-effective and perhaps detrimental training effect that occurred when athletes first started using strength training and using the bodybuilding methods way back decades ago

it is largely determinantal for the explosive power athlete as it is non-specific to the development of power.

– a total lack of awareness of the need for a fast/attempted-to-be-fast concentric contraction.

Therefore the power athlete cannot afford to spend more than 10-20 % (as a generalization) of their total strength training time using numbers greater than 1 as the third number

So for the explosive athletes a rep tempo will either end in a ‘1’ or an ‘X’.

 The pause phase – manipulating the SSC

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

It was my recognition of the pause between eccentric and concentric, and the impact varying this has on the training effect, that completed the picture.  The primary role of controlling the pause between lifting and lowering weights is simply to negate or exploit the effects of the stretch shortening cycle (SSC).

…if you do a conventional bench press with an eccentric or lowering phase that was about a second, it took a full four second pause in between the eccentric and concentric to completely eliminate the stretch shortening cycle  

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

…Depending on whether or not you want to reduce or exploit the stretch-shortening cycle will determine how long the pause is likely to be... .in general although a 4s pause has been shown to eliminate the stretch shortening cycle...

Three sets of 10

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

There is an incredible trend in strength training to do three sets of every exercises.  More specifically, three (or more) sets at the same weight on the same exercise -most commonly, 3 sets of 10!  Why is this?   I’ve asked myself that question many times, and the only answer I come up with is the power of tradition.  You see, these magic numbers were ‘validated’ way back in the late ‘40’s and early ‘50’s by an American army surgeon by the name of De Lorme when he presented research evidence supporting the use of three sets of ten reps.  All credit to the contribution De Lorme made to the science of training, but that was fifty years ago.  Yet what do you see almost every time you look at a training program?  3 x 10 (or 15 or 12 or 8, or 6 etc.)!  What do you see every time you browse (I say browse, because invariably there’s nothing that warrants reading) through a mainstream bodybuilding magazine?  3 x 10!

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

Three sets of ten: Despite the absolute limitless combinations of sets and reps that can be performed – three sets of ten remains the single most common set and rep scheme.  In the late 1940’s Thomas DeLorme and his Boston team of orthopaedic surgeons were experiencing difficulties rehabilitating World War II Veterans, so they tried a radically new medical approach: They developed and implemented a strength training program that proved successful in rehabilitation their injured patients.

Known as the DeLorme-Watkins protocol, the program consisted of one ste of ten reps at 50% of your ten rep max, one set at 75% and one set at 100%.  That was it.  That was where the industry standard came from. And here we are over fifty years later and this is still the primary set-rep scheme that most trainers are using.

  ‘ANATOMY OF MULTIPLE SET WORKOUTS’ wordings by paragraph (cont)

#

King 1999

Cosgrove. 2005, Program Design Bible

1

There is an incredible trend in strength training to do three sets of every exercises. 

Despite the absolute limitless combinations of sets and reps that can be performed

2

More specifically, three (or more) sets at the same weight on the same exercise -most commonly, 3 sets of 10! 

– three sets of ten remains the single most common set and rep scheme. 

3

Why is this?   I’ve asked myself that question many times, and the only answer I come up with is the power of tradition. 

4

You see, these magic numbers were ‘validated’ way back in the late ‘40’s and early ‘50’s by an American army surgeon by the name of De Lorme when he presented research evidence supporting the use of three sets of ten reps. 

In the late 1940’s Thomas DeLorme and his Boston team of orthopaedic surgeons were experiencing difficulties rehabilitating World War II Veterans, so they tried a radically new medical approach: They developed and implemented a strength training program that proved successful in rehabilitation their injured patients. 

5

Known as the DeLorme-Watkins protocol, the program consisted of one ste of ten reps at 50% of your ten rep max, one set at 75% and one set at 100%. 

6

All credit to the contribution De Lorme made to the science of training,

That was it.  That was where the industry standard came from.

7

but that was fifty years ago. 

And here we are over fifty years later

8

Yet what do you see almost every time you look at a training program?  3 x 10 (or 15 or 12 or 8, or 6 etc.)!  What do you see every time you browse (I say browse, because invariably there’s nothing that warrants reading) through a mainstream bodybuilding magazine?  3 x 10!

and this is still the primary set-rep scheme that most trainers are using.

Three sets of 10 – Critical of

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)

To understand why I am critical of standards sets (i.e. three or more sets of the same reps and load), lets take a street-language look at the ‘anatomy of the multiple sets workout’.

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

 …I am not a huge fan of standard sets (i.e. work, set, rest, work set of the same exercise, rest, etc.  I am even less of a fan of the 3 sets of 10 mentality.

Inverse relationship between volume and intensity

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Most train hard and long, and with high frequency.  Unless one is supported by a incredibly higher recovery system (natural or chemically enhanced), this approach will result in over-training and non-achievement of goals.

I have very firm beliefs on this topic.  Volume and intensity are inversely related.  When one is up, the other is forced down.  You cannot do a high volume workout (i.e. a high number of sets) and have as high an intensity as you would have with a lower number of sets.   Many kid themselves on this, but you cannot avoid reality.

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

 …but you cannot train hard and long.  I agree with this statement. Volume and intensity are inversely related. When one is up, the other is down.  Most trainers, quite honestly, seem unaware of this simple concept, or are perhaps in denial as regards this, but it is an irrefutable fact.

Inverse relationships between volume and intensity

King, I., 1998, How to Write (book)

Cosgrove, A., 2005, Program Design Bible

… Most train hard and long, and with high frequency.…

…but you cannot train hard and long. 

I have very firm beliefs on this topic. 

I agree with this statement.

Volume and intensity are inversely related.  When one is up, the other is forced down. 

Volume and intensity are inversely related. When one is up, the other is down.

You cannot do a high volume workout (i.e. a high number of sets) and have as high an intensity as you would have with a lower number of sets.  

Many kid themselves on this, but you cannot avoid reality.

Most trainers, quite honestly, seem unaware of this simple concept, or are perhaps in denial as regards this, but it is an irrefutable fact.

Bodyweight before external loading

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

I apply the following guideline to any athlete, not just young athlete - why use external loading before developing the ability to manage the load of bodyweight?

…if your bodyweight for whatever reason is too much for your leg strength, you can always do a  one-legged leg press or hack squat.

Cosgrove, A., 2005, 7 Habits of Highly Effective Program Design

Regardless of your goals, one thing is for sure: You have no freaking business using a load if you can't stabilize, control, and move efficiently using only your bodyweight!

Unless your bodyweight is way too much or way too little resistance, then there's very little room for external loading. This is not to say that external loading isn't important. Of course it is, but it has definitely been overemphasized.

Communicating desired speed of movement

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

To communicate how fast or slow I wanted an athlete to move the load in strength training, I developed a numbering system in the 80’s.   

I use a three (3) number system to communicate speed of movement in strength training. 

Cosgrove, 2005,  The Evil Scot: An interview by Chris Shugart, T-mag.com

...Tempo is just a method to communicate rep speed.

Implications of an unplanned change in speed of movement

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Another important point to remember is that being aware of the movement speed allows you also to control this variable.  There is little value in increasing the load in a subsequent workout if you also change the speed - who knows whether you are getting stronger or working harder.  You may well be just using more elastic energy!

Cosgrove, 2005,  The Evil Scot: An interview by Chris Shugart, T-mag.com

If I wanted you to do bench presses and you were only doing half reps, then you're not doing what I wanted. I'm assuming that you use full range. Similarly, I'm assuming that you do all your reps at the same speed. But what if you don't? If I change your program from 6 reps to 12 reps I have effectively doubled your time under tension assuming your rep speed was constant. If your rep speed changes then I won't get the training effect I'm looking for.

Don’t start a rep you are not completely confident of completing

Source

Description

King. I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

 Don’t attempt a rep that you are not confident of getting, and don’t count an incomplete rep.

Schuler, L., and Cosgrove, A., 2006, New Rules

…At no point in Alwyn’s New Rules workouts should you attempt a lift without confidence that you can complete it. 

Communicating desired speed of movement

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

To communicate how fast or slow I wanted an athlete to move the load in strength training, I developed a numbering system in the 80’s.   

I use a three (3) number system to communicate speed of movement in strength training. 

Schuler, L., and Cosgrove, A., 2006, New Rules

 Tempo? What the hell?

We expect an average lifter to take two or three seconds to lower a weight, pause for a second, and then take a second to lift it

6/1/6/1 method

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Contrast training : is also an explosive power training method, but can be used to great effect in bodybuilding.  It involves alternating from a high load/slow movement to a lower load/faster movement.  You can see the speed training (explosive power) benefits, but the following example is a highly effective maximum strength/hypertrophy method.

 

1x6@100kgs / 1x1@120kgs / 1x6@105kgs / 1x1 @125kgs /

1x10-20 @80kgs

 

This is a highly effective method that will only work if you avoid excessive fatigue in the first 6’s and 1’s.  The aim of the 1’s is to expose the body to a higher load, and when you come back to the 6 the 6 should feel lighter than it otherwise would have.  Note the goal is to lift heavier in the second 6 and 1 than in the first 6 and 1.

Schuler, L. and Cosgrove, A., 2006, New Rules

Wave loading is another bait and switch technique for your nervous system. 

 

In Strength 1, after your warm-up, you’ll start with six reps of an exercise – squats, say – and then in the next set do just one.  Then you’ll do another set of six, but with a heavier weight than you used for your first set.   Because your body remembers how heavy the single rep was, the weight you use for six reps should feel relatively light, even though it may be more than you’ve ever used for six reps.  Then you do your fourth set with the one rep, using a heavier weight than on the previous single.  It too should feel a little easier than it ordinarily would since you know you just have to lift it once, as opposed to six times.

Three sets of 10

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

There is an incredible trend in strength training to do three sets of every exercises.  More specifically, three (or more) sets at the same weight on the same exercise -most commonly, 3 sets of 10!  Why is this?   I’ve asked myself that question many times, and the only answer I come up with is the power of tradition.  You see, these magic numbers were ‘validated’ way back in the late ‘40’s and early ‘50’s by an American army surgeon by the name of De Lorme when he presented research evidence supporting the use of three sets of ten reps.  All credit to the contribution De Lorme made to the science of training, but that was fifty years ago.  Yet what do you see almost every time you look at a training program?  3 x 10 (or 15 or 12 or 8, or 6 etc.)!  What do you see every time you browse (I say browse, because invariably there’s nothing that warrants reading) through a mainstream bodybuilding magazine?  3 x 10!

Schuler, L., and Cosgrove, A., 2006, New Rules

Eight to twelve repetitions

This is the classic bodybuilding configuration, meaning that over time these medium-duration sets have become the gold standard for muscle-focused workouts.  And it’s easy to see why. Way back in 1945, an Army physical named Thomas De-Lorme used strength training to help soldiers recover from injuries and wounds.  Eventually, through trial and error, he came uip with the most famous strength-training protocol ever: three sets of ten repetitions per exercises, otherwise known as 3x10…..

Bodyweight before external loading

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

I apply the following guideline to any athlete, not just young athlete - why use external loading before developing the ability to manage the load of bodyweight?

…if your bodyweight for whatever reason is too much for your leg strength, you can always do a  one-legged leg press or hack squat.

Cosgrove, A., 2006, Your body is a barbell, eliteFTS .com

In fact when you think about it, the only reason to ever use external load (i.e. weights) is because your bodyweight is not enough resistance.

Bodyweight transition to external loading

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

…Take 3 seconds to lower, 1 second pause each end and 2 seconds to lift.  No warm up set needed.  When you can do more than 15-20 reps FULL RANGE look to hold DB’s in the hands - this I suspect is a long way off!

Cosgrove, A., 2006, Your body is a barbell, eliteFTS .com

Once you are capable of performing 15-20 reps of each of these exercises at the given tempo with ease – you are now ‘allowed’ to grab a 5lb dumbbell and start over!

Average drug-free/got a job person

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

For the average drug free-got a job/go to school person, I recommend consider using a recovery week after 2 stages (6-8 wks i.e. 2x3-4 wk blocks).  For the older trainee or those whose recovery ability is stressed by work/lifestyle etc., I recommend using a recovery week after every 3-4 wks of training.    How do you know which option to use?  Easy - think back over your previous training programs.  If for example, you recall burning out and ‘getting weaker’ after only 3 wks training, you either need to lower the training load or use a recovery week after 3 wks, or both.

Cosgrove, A., 2006, Developing a training philosophy, t-nation.com

Idea #2: Think of the Average (because that's where the big picture is)

What a pro-bodybuilder or professional athlete responds best to has little meaning for most of us. Most of us aren't at elite levels. Most of your clients aren't at elite levels. So develop concepts based on what works, most of the time, for the average person.

For example, over time I've found that a drug-free individual with a job or school, training for size, needs to work a muscle more than once a week for optimal results. And that same individual usually doesn't recover from more than two back-to-back weight training workouts effectively.

A program that works for a steroid-using athlete training six days per week won't work for a drug-free father of two who works 40 hours a week and gets to the gym for three hours total... or vice versa.

Bodyweight before external loading

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

I apply the following guideline to any athlete, not just young athlete - why use external loading before developing the ability to manage the load of bodyweight?

…if your bodyweight for whatever reason is too much for your leg strength, you can always do a  one-legged leg press or hack squat.

Cosgrove, A., 2006, Developing a Training Philosophy, t-mag.com

.... you must also have some general guidelines when it comes to exercise selection.

Here are some of mine:

• Bodyweight variations before external loading

  ‘WEAK SIDE RULE’ wordings by paragraph

#

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

Schuler, L., Forsythe, C., and Cosgrove, A., 2007, New Rules for Women

3

Ian’s Weak Side Rules

Unilateral Manoeuvres

1. Strength train the weak or injured side first and stretch the tighter side first;

When doing an exercise the works one leg or arm at a time, always start withy your non-dominant side. So if you’re right-handed, that’s your dominant side, and you should start out with your left leg or arm.  If you have had an injury to your dominant side, and it’s now weaker than your non dominant limb, then start with the weaker one. 

2. then MAYBE do the strong or longer side;

3. do no more reps or load (strength) or time (stretching) on the strong/long sides than the weak/tighter side could do;

You goal is to match the repetitions you do with the weaker or non-dominant limb with your stronger or dominant side.

4. if the imbalance is greater than 10% or thereabouts consider doing a ....

4

If this step is not taken then expect the muscle imbalance to stay or return – and get worse!

If you did it the other way around, you might do more reps per set with your stronger side, and exacerbate the imbalance.

Tight side rule

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

Ian’s Weak Side Rules

1. Strength train the weak or injured side first and stretch the tighter side first;

Cosgrove, R., 2009, Female Body Breakthrough

 Always stretch the tightest muscle or tightest side first:

Common injuries & causes – hip flexors and lower back

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Ch 22 – Injury Prevention: Flexibility

Here is how I believe it works.  Tight hip flexors/quads pull the top of the pelvis forward excessively (anterior rotation).  This then causes the nerves coming out of the lower spine to be pinched.  This in turn results in nerve irritation and muscle spasm in the muscles that these nerves innervate.  The symptoms are often pains down the leg, apparent strains in the hamstrings or calves and so on.  The symptoms are many.  The cause is simple - excessive anterior rotation of the pelvis due to tight muscles.  Relief is rapid when the cause is treated!

Cosgrove, R., 2009, Female Body Breakthrough

Some of the issues these female-specific program address include the following:

* many women also have the related problem of short hip flexors…..When the hip flexors are short, the hips are tilted forward and the posterior chain (butt and hamstrings) cannot work.

The other problem that arises with tight hip flexors is lower back pain. Because the hip flexors are attached at the back of the pelvis, when they’re short, they pull the pelvis into anterior tilt, and this causes pressure at the lower back, where you body tries to compensate for the tight hip flexors.

Common injuries & causes – hip flexors and lower back

 [sentence structure/word selection comparison]

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!  (book)

Cosgrove, R., 2009, Female Body Breakthrough

Cosgrove, R., 2009, Female Body Breakthrough

Here is how I believe it works. 

Some of the issues these female-specific program address include the following:

The other problem that arises with

Tight hip flexors/quads

* many women also have the related problem of short hip flexors…..

tight hip flexors is lower back pain.

Because the hip flexors are attached at the back of the pelvis, when they’re short,

pull the top of the pelvis forward excessively (anterior rotation)

When the hip flexors are short, the hips are tilted forward

they pull the pelvis into anterior tilt,

This then causes the nerves coming out of the lower spine to be pinched. 

and this causes pressure at the lower back,

This in turn results in nerve irritation and muscle spasm in the muscles that these nerves innervate.  The symptoms are often pains down the leg, apparent strains in the hamstrings or calves and so on. 

and the posterior chain (butt and hamstrings) cannot work.

where you body tries to compensate for the tight hip flexors.

Abdominals - imbalance

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)

the upper abdominals are usually stronger than the lower (from being ordered in this way or from total neglect of lower) so I have prioritized them from lower to upper;

Cosgrove, R., 2009, Female Body Breakthrough

…most women have done too many crunches and not enough core stablization exercises.…

Training frequency – three days a week

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

Total body workouts are ideal for beginners, those who wish to reduce their time commitment to training, and those who find their energy levels/recovery ability are not that high.  For the average person, the total body workout has something of a time restriction between workouts - at the highest frequency, you are limited to 3 workouts per week or every 48 hours

 

Cosgrove, R., 2009, Female Body Breakthrough

 

 These are all total body workouts, so you’ll do them on non-consecutive days, with no more than three strength workouts in a seven-day period.

 

First phase – mostly bodyweight

Source

Description

King, I, 1999, Twelve Weeks of Pain, Part I - Limping into October 17 Sep 1999

The following article is Part I of a two-part leg training article that's very different from anything you've ever done. How so? Well, for starters, some of the exercises don't even require you to use any weight beyond that of what you've got piled on top of your hip bones and dressed up in a Tommy Hilfiger shirt. Secondly, this workout has a nasty side effect. It hurts. Real bad

Cosgrove, A., 1999, Personal Communication

-----Original Message-----
From: AlwynJC@aol.com [mailto:AlwynJC@aol.com]
Sent: Saturday, 4 December 1999 5:18 AM
To: kingsports@b022.aone.net.au
Subject: Re: Between Sets Newsletter #6

Ian, …It's funny - I have bben doing your t-mag leg workouts ( the first two). It seems such as hort workout andd espite all my experience I would have tended to do more sets etc. I usually train for about an hour - this is done in a half an hour.

But - the pain !!!!!!!!!!!! You weren't kidding - it is a deep muscle soreness - real intense.

Interstingly it is a great workout to introduce females to weigth lifting and training. (A lot of them are scared to lift heavy) Keep them coming…

--Alwyn

Cosgrove, R., 2009, Female Body Breakthrough

This first phase will use mostly bodyweight exercises

CAPABLE VS OPTIMAL

#

King 1999

Get Buffed!

Cosgrove & Cosgrove 2009

Program Design Bible

1

Capable versus optimal : most people in strength training perform a number of sets that they have the energy to do.  This is endurance training, not strength training.  Strength training effectiveness is not judged by what you did (ie. how many sets you did), but rather how much change occurred as a result (ie. size or strength).  This training effect is a combination of the workout plus the rest / recovery until the next workout. 

Optimal v Capable – most trainees judge how effective a workout has been by how “beat up” they feel.  Or by how much work (interpreted usually as how many sets) they have done.  The effectiveness of training is not determined by the amount of fatigue it products but by the degree to which it improves the qualities and/or abilities you are trying to develop.  You do not improve by training. You improve by recovering from training.

2

You will not know what is optimal during the session unless you have indicators based on prior experience.  Don’t work to metabolic signals such as total fatigue.  And only use past indicators for number of sets if they have been effective. 

The best advice I can offer as far as this goes is, even if you can do more – unless you have valid proof that in your case, more will be significantly better – always do less until you have that proof.

Injury prevention vs. performance enhancement – prioritize injury prevention

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)

In brief you and I have choices.  We can enhance performance, or we can prevent injury, or we can do both.  If we are going to do both, I like to do injury prevention first

Cosgrove, A., and Cosgrove, R., 2009, Program Design Bible

 Ideally we approach goals and correct problems at the same time.

However it should be noted that correction of imbalance takes precedence over aesthetic, gender-driven or performance exercise. Otherwise we are risking and to be honest promoting injury.

More effective exercises

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

For the most part I support the use of big muscle group exercises.   Some call them basic movements.  They are the foundation of most strength sports.  I believe they are not only more effective for size and strength, they are more time efficient i.e. they train more muscle mass in a shorter period of time.

If I had to pick a few basic movements that I believe you should base your training around they would include the exercises listed in Figure 50.

Figure 50  -  The basic exercises for each major muscle group. 

Cosgrove, A., and Cosgrove, R., 2009, Program Design Bible

These ‘big bang’ exercises are multi-joint, multiple muscle group and sometimes multi-planar exercises and recruit considerably more muscle mass than single joint or machine variations.  So whether your goal is strength, hypertrophy of fat loss, some variations of these exercises should be in pretty much all training program at some point.

It goes without saying, (but it doesn’t) that imbalances and corrective stages aside, that there are certain exercises that are just more effective overall than the others.  The list of exercises includes squats, deadlifts, split squats, lunges (in all planes), dips, chins, rows, presses and some core work.

                                                Progressive Loading Model - Example

Source

Description

King. I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book),

 

Figure 13  - Load selection and outcome over a 3 week cycle using a progressive effort each week (based on a 6 RM of 100 kgs, and assuming increases in this RM weekly or per micro-cycle).
 

Cosgrove, A., and Cosgrove, R., 2009, Program Design Bible

 So…their progression might be

 

Week 1: 2 sets of 8 reps @ 95lbs

Week 2: 3 sets of 8 reps @ 100lbs

Week 3: 3 sets of 8 reps @ 102lbs

Week 4: 3 sets of 8 reps @ 105lbs

Example of program planning using lines of movement

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Figure 9 - An example of a 3/wk ’semi-total body’ split routine.  This split requires less of your time and allows more time for muscle recovery than a standard total body workout.

 NB the allocation of muscle groups to training days is an example only. 

Cosgrove, A., and Cosgrove, R., 2009, Program Design Bible

So in this example we have decided that the movement allocation be as follows:

Day One                                  Day Two                                  Day Three

______________________________________________________________

Horizontal Pull                       Vertical Push                     Quad Dominant             Hip Dominant                        Vertical Pull                        Horizontal Push

Prioritization – Done first is done best

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

There is really one simple rule here.  The exercises you do first in the workout and first in the training week are the exercises that get the best effort, and therefore the best result.  

Cosgrove, A., and Cosgrove, R., 2009, Program Design Bible

As a general rule, everyone fatigues as the workout continues, and what is done first in the workout generally gets the best training effect.

Shortening of the rest period – lactate effect

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

     th shortening of the rest period : the focus in this method is to reduce the rest periods between sets as a form of progression.  This is from the metabolic perspective, focusing on the discomfort of working under lactic acid.   This method ignores the neural component, but is effective for certain hypertrophy components (e.g. increase size of slow twitch or Type 1 muscle fibers, increased capillarization, short-term elevation of hormones including Growth Hormone);

Cosgrove, A., and Cosgrove, R., 2009, Program Design Bible

 I can purposefully use shorter rest periods to create a lactate tolerance effect.

Shortening of the rest period – metabolic and hormonal effect

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed! (book)

Short rest periods between sets : short rest periods, as I have explained above, creates greater fatigue of the metabolic system, which is supportive of hypertrophy, and  also has been shown to cause higher testosterone and growth hormone release.  Higher GH (growth hormone) release has been related to lowering body fat.

Cosgrove, A., and Cosgrove, R., 2009, Program Design Bible

 For the purpose of hypertrophy training and fat loss, short rest periods of 30-60 seconds coupled with higher volume training have been found to cause elevated levels of GH and testosterone.

Comparison of ‘ANATOMY OF MULTIPLE SET WORKOUTS’ wordings by paragraph

#

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed!

Cosgrove & Cosgrove 2009, Program Design Bible, 2nd Ed

1

The first work set

The primary effect of the first work set is shock.  The body, subject to the laws of homeostasis and innate protective mechanisms, rarely functions optimally during the first work set. ot at your most efficient. 

I have also been heavily influenced by Ian King when selecting the number of sets.  King has pointed out that the first set of a workout tends to be a ‘shock’ to the body.  The body rarely functions well during the first work set of an exercise.

3

The second work set - This set is potentially the ‘best’ set.  The second work set benefits from the first work set - in what can be described as ‘neural arousal’, or greater neuro-muscular innervation...Psychologically, you have  benefited from the exposure to the load of the first set - now you are ready, anticipating the load.  There will be no surprises. ...

 The second set however tends to benefit from the first set in terms of neural innvervation – the body is ‘awake’ now.  At the end of the second set, psychologically you now ‘own’ the weight.  At this point King feels a third set at the same load is excessive. I think it may be an exercise in futility.

4

The third and subsequent work sets - How you respond to the third and subsequent work sets may be influenced by many factors including: 

· your entry level recovery (as reflected by your resting stores of metabolic and neural substrates;

· your level of specific conditioning (ability to tolerate this volume);

· nutritional/ergogenic effects on your rate of substrate/neural chemical replacement; and

· how close to maximum effort and fatigue you went on the prior two work sets.

A third set at the same load as sets one and two is becoming an exercise in endurance.  It is influenced by recovery status, nutritional status, substrate availability and to be honest residual fatigue from sets one and two. 

5

These factors aside, I believe that in most cases, the application of a third or more work set of the same load are affected by residual fatigue.  And therefore they are perhaps not the most efficient method of overload.

6

In a nut-shell, if you are lifting the same load for say three sets of ten, it is unlikely it was your maximum in set one.  In fact, if you are able to complete three sets of ten at the same load, even if you reach exhaustion on the tenth rep of the third set, it is unlikely that even the second set was at or near your maximum.  Probably the only time you are at your maximum is on the third set - and even then that maximum may be more of a metabolic maximum than a neural maximum.

In a nutshell if you are still able to lift the same load for three sets, it is likely that you have selected loads based on the facts you are doing three sets – i.e.  you didn’t use your maximum load.

7

...In my opinion, it is difficult to do more than two sets at the same reps and load if the effort is maximal.  In most cases of standard sets, I feel that each set is performed sub-maximally from either a load or fatigue perspective.  Figure 37 illustrates my point using estimations.

In general, I rarely use more than two sets of the same exercise at the same load.

Other factors influencing number of sets

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)

What other factors influence the optimal number of sets?  The following factors give you a greater insight into the issue of optimal number of set

Cosgrove, A., and Cosgrove, 2009, Program Design Bible, 2nd Ed

Other factors that influence set selection are:…

Other factors influencing number of sets

Source

Description

King, I., 1999, Get Buffed (book)